Meaning and action in games

Video Games

At its core, a game is constructed from several essential components: a defined Goal (the end state players are trying to reach), Rules (the formal structure establishing what can and cannot be done), Obstacles (elements preventing easy goal achievement) and a Core Dynamic, "the main action of a game, what the player does most of the time in order to reach their goal(s)."[1]

Rules of notice

Games make use of many of the same rules of notice used in visual and video media. As game designer Jenova Chen puts it, “visuals are one of the elements that are very useful to help communicate an arc of emotion. You want to make sure all the sounds and visuals and gameplay and music all work together.”[2]

As in comics, colour and shape are an important part of character design. Simple characters are defined and distinguished by basic shapes (rounded shapes and rectangles suit Mario as Nintendo’s friendly mascot, while Sonic’s more aggressive personality is signified by the triangular spikes on his back). Contrast is used both for emotional effects and to help players manage the frequently overwhelming amount of visual detail on screen.[3] While video game designers don’t have the same control over visual composition as in video media – in most games there’s either a single fixed perspective, or players have control over the location of the “camera” – the same effect can be achieved through characters or settings with exaggerated height or depth, as in Shadow of the Colossus or the more recent Legend of Zelda games,[4] as well as in non-interactive moments or “cut scenes.”[5] Games also have a wide range of visual styles, ranging from “pixel art” that recalls the earliest days of the medium to near-photorealism. Some games take inspiration from other media, such as comics or animation, often using a deliberately simple style to increase contrast and clarity.[6] Video games use sound and music in much the same way as video media, while tabletop role-playing games are primarily an audio medium, with an intimacy similar to that of podcasts.

Rules of action

“Whereas in a film it's better to show than to tell, in a video game it's better to do than to watch. Give the story's best moments to the player, and he'll never forget them. Put them in a cutscene, and he'll yawn.” Jordan Mechner, designer of Prince of Persia[7]

Games are distinguished from traditional media like film or literature by the presence of agency and interactivity.[8] Unlike non-interactive media, “games don’t focus your view with directorial control of the camera, insist you listen to particular dialogue or progress at a certain pace. Instead, they invite you to step into the space they create.”[9] Playing a game is described as being "more like actually running a race than watching a film or reading a short story about a race."[10]

Game designers work primarily "in the medium of agency," carefully sculpting the player’s experience by defining a game’s rules of action, the "skeleton of the players’ practical agency within that world."[11] Rules in games delineate not just what isn’t allowed in the game, but also what isn’t permitted in normal life but is allowed in the game's as-if space. This can include things that are normally impossible (flying, transforming, etc.), but also things that are possible but forbidden in the real world, such as violence.

Game spaces

In games, players must “learn how to ‘read the physical environments they are in to gain clues about how to proceed through them.”[12] Game designers have a variety of techniques – including some that draw on rules of notice from other media – to guide players’ attention within a game space:

  • Cause and effect vignettes: Staged scenes showing aftermaths—like broken doors, crashed vehicles or burned-out fires—help players deduce past events or anticipate dangers ahead.[13]
  • Collectables: Items to collect that guide players in a certain direction or mark visited areas.[14]
  • Colour: Contrasting colours highlight climbable objects or surfaces.[15]
  • Cookie trails: Trails of arrows or crumbs that guide players to the next destination.[16]
  • Destinations: Large visible buildings or structures serve as reference points for orientation.[17]
  • Environmental transformation: Revisiting familiar spaces after changes (such as new damage or alterations) naturally informs players about evolving narrative or consequences.[18]
  • Genre conventions: Using genre tropes like pirate ships or haunted mansions to tap into players’ existing story knowledge, subtly guiding expectations and exploration.[19]
  • Lights: Flashing or bright lights indicate important paths or items.[20]
  • Maps and signs: In-game maps and signage provide orientation and direction.[21]
  • Narrative artifacts: Embedding story clues such as journals or photographs throughout the world encourages players to investigate and piece together the story context.[22]
  • Point of view: How the player perceives the game space –in a side view, a first-person perspective, an overhead map or grid, an isometric perspective – allow the designer to highlight objects, characters or locations (or conceal them).[23]
  • Sound: Audio cues guide players toward specific areas or objects.[24]
  • Texture: Surface details like worn paths or track marks hint at possible routes or interactions.[25]

Players may control multiple pieces or one main character, known as an avatar, which represents them in the game world. Avatars can often be customized and may even change over the course of the game. The connection between player and their avatar “transcends identification with characters in novels or movies… because it is both active (the player actively does things) and reflexive, in the sense that once the player has made some choices about the virtual character, the virtual character is now developed in a way that set certain parameters about what the character can do.”[26] This may explain why an avatar’s physical characteristics, even without having direct impact game play, can influence players’ actions within the game. This phenomenon is called the Proteus effect. In some cases, this effect persists even outside of game play – for instance, playing as a sexualized avatar can leads players to objectify themselves, even if they don’t share the avatar’s gender.[27]

Communicating meaning and guiding action

Successful games communicate their rules of action through exploratory learning: in the classic game Super Metroid, for example, the player’s avatar is trapped in a pit that seems too deep to escape. However, little creatures can be seen bouncing up the sides of the pit, which "subtly primes the player to take the correct action without blatantly telling them.” [28] This process, using feedback to update the user’s mental model, leads to an 'aha' moment where mastery is achieved.

Designers also guide the player's emotional and aesthetic experience.[29] Games that feature a "range of abilities required to solve the encounter" and require skill in using those abilities are key to avoiding boredom and keeping the player engaged.[30] If the pacing of challenge unveiling is too slow, the game may be dismissed as trivial; if too fast, the player may lose control and perceive it as noise.

However, user guidance may have negative impacts, as well. Often, these are the result of tensions between maximizing player enjoyment and fulfilling business requirements, particularly those tied to monetization.[31] Many freemium games, especially in the mobile market, aren’t designed primarily for fun; instead, they are "designed to create pain points that can be relieved with money."[32]

These techniques often fall under the label of manipulative design or "dark patterns."[33] Examples include:

  • Obfuscation of cost: Using complex in-game currency systems makes it difficult for players, especially children, to track spending and understand the true value of money.[34]
  • Psychological pressure: Design abuses like using parasocial relationships where a character cries or yells "save me!" to urge prolonged play or purchases, or utilizing Fear of Missing Out (FOMO) tactics with limited-time events.[35]
  • Commercial exclusion: Because sophisticated features or premium products tend to be expensive, they "can also be exclusive," potentially excluding people.[36]
  • Fear of missing out (FOMO): Time-based elements create urgency with "limited-time events." This creates frustration linked to the threat of permanent exclusion from desirable content if they don't act immediately.[37]

Game verbs

The concept of "verbs" in the context of video games is a metaphor used by game designers to describe a game’s rules of action, what players are permitted to do within the game environment and in what circumstances. As put by game designer Sid Meier, a good game is “a series of interesting choices.”[38]

Verbs represent the player's capacity for agency—the ability to influence outcomes through their own efforts.[39] For example, in a military shooter game like Call of Duty, the primary verb is shooting at non-playable characters (NPCs). In a game like Metal Gear Solid, the possibility space of verbs is broader, offering other ways of achieving goals such as stealth.[40] These verbs influence how players feel, as well as what they do: “a film viewer might feel joyful when the protagonist wins, but is not likely to feel a sense of personal responsibility and pride. Because they depend on active player choice, games have an additional palette of social emotions at their disposal.”[41]

As a result, verbs are among the most critical game mechanics, defining what a player can do and the resulting effect those actions have on the overall state of the game[42] and are a common focus of game design: Dorian Hart, designer of the influential game System Shock, has said his inspiration was wanting to build a game “where players had more verbs than simply ‘shoot.’”[43]

The verbs available influence how a player experiences agency, narrative and creativity within the game, placing it on a spectrum of player control.[44] For example, a linear military shooter like Call of Duty grants the player "little interactivity and agency" (fewer verbs) while a sandbox game (such as Grand Theft Auto or Minecraft) offers "a profusion of verbs at any moment, and has very little authorial push down a single path." In such games, players are "much more in the authorial role. At the extreme high end are games where the player's actions do not just result in static content but in "completely new verbs that exist only because the player put them there," often through programmability or emergent behavior. [45]

When the design limits the verbs in unexpected ways, however, players may feel frustration. Young children, for instance, have "complained that the games they liked to play did not always allow them to do what they wanted," particularly when objects they wanted to interact with were designed as unresponsive background graphics.[46] Non-digital games, such as board and tabletop roleplaying games, allow players to modify the rules, and therefore the verbs available, in ways not generally available in video games.[47]

The verbs available to a player are a powerful element through which values are built into games.[48] A game rewards its players for adopting its precepts; for example, a pacifist "cannot win Call of Duty without shooting in-game enemies," making shooting the rewarded verb necessary for progress.[49] Because games are also simulated worlds, how the systems in these worlds operate can influence how players see their real-world parallels. In SimCity, for example, players are must demolish low-income housing to promote economic growth, while crime is most effectively reduced by placing a police station on every block.[50] Even if players aren’t required or encouraged to shoot enemies or evict homeowners, games can “threaten us with a fantasy of moral clarity” because all actions in a game world must be unambiguously positive, negative or morally irrelevant;[51] according to board game designer Reiner Knizia, a game’s values are most powerfully communicated by its scoring system, since “it’s the score that drives players’ behaviors.”[52]

While values and beliefs "become embedded in games whether designers intend them to or not,"[53] designers can intentionally convey ideological or persuasive content. For example, the interactive sculpture Giant Joystick promotes collaboration making the user interface enormous: "Visitors cannot play with Giant Joystick by themselves; one person (or sometimes more than one person) moves the stick, while another person presses the fire button by jumping on it." This changes the experience from an isolating pursuit to "a joyous celebration of collaborative fun."[54] Designers may, similarly, choose to reward players for engaging in "cooperative, nonviolent interactions" to challenge the assumption that masculine-coded verbs (like fighting) are more desirable than feminine-coded skills (like healing).[55]

Why we play

Playing is a choice made primarily for fun or entertainment, but the specific sources of enjoyment vary widely across individuals and genres.[56] Children ages 10-17 say they most enjoy games that are affordable, easy to play, age-appropriate and that allow them to be creative.[57] For many players, particularly younger generations, gaming is fundamentally a social activity.[58] Among teens who play video games, roughly three-quarters say that "spending time with others" is a reason they play.[59]

However, fewer than one in five tweens and teens say they enjoy games with chat or messaging features.[60] This suggests they prefer to communicate with offline friends through other channels while playing. One possible reason is high rates of hate and harassment within games and game communities.[61] 

At the heart of enjoyment lies the principle of intrinsic motivation. Digital play is rated highly by children for intrinsic motivation and immersive play.[62] The distinctive nature of the medium, defined by agency, means the player is engaged in the "voluntary attempt to overcome unnecessary obstacles";[63] games serve as “a learning space in which the learner can take risks where real-world consequences are lowered.”[64]

Some of the broad reasons why people play games include the "drive to master challenges, acquire, and perform knowledge and skills," “the drive to create,” “the drive to explore identities and deep interests” and the "drive to control, collect, curate and classify."[65]

Player engagement with challenge and accomplishment can also be categorized into distinct typologies:

  • Achievers are "explicitly goal-oriented and motivated by long-term achievement."[66]
  • Seekers “like to experiment” and “pride themselves on being the first to discover features.”[67]
  • Masterminds seek enjoyment from a "problem that requires complex decision-making and strategy to overcome obstacles," such as solving puzzles.[68]
  • Conquerors actively pursue challenge, disliking easy victories and instead enjoying "overcoming adversity."[69]
  • Socializers "enjoy spending time with other gamers and sharing the experiences of being in communion with them, cooperating, and talking game strategies."[70] For children who struggle with in-person interactions, social engagement through digital play "can act as an important source of social connection."[71]
  • Even usually negative experiences may be sought out by some players: Survivors enjoy "experiencing moments of terror that trigger a state of excitement and arousal," while Daredevils appreciate "the thrill of the chase, the excitement of taking risks, and generally like playing on the edge."[72]

A primary source of enjoyment comes from achieving mastery and engaging in challenging activities.[73] Successful games often induce a flow state, described as an "optimal state" that keeps players engaged by offering "a challenging activity requiring skill," "clear goals" and "direct, immediate feedback." [74] The continuous satisfaction of interacting in stimulating and imaginative ways provides a strong "sense of achievement."[75]

Casual games, in particular, have been shown to function similarly to mindfulness meditation, with one study finding "no statistically significant difference" between playing a casual game and engaging in meditation for reducing blood pressure and heart rate.[76] Furthermore, digital play can compensate for frustrated needs in daily life, providing satisfaction in areas such as autonomy, belonging and mastery that may be lacking in other environments.[77] The ability to use gaming to "escape from difficult situations in the real world" and to get through "tough times" is also a key motivator, particularly for players who identify as 2SLGBTQ+.[78]

In well-designed games, frustration arises from the gap between the player’s ability and the challenge presented. If the challenge is too low, the player experiences boredom and apathy; if the challenge is too high, it results in "anxiety and frustration." [79] This tension is intentional and necessary for achieving mastery and a sense of achievement. This compels the player to update their mental model and engage in exploratory learning that tells the user, "Hey, that didn’t work very well… try something different"[80] until they achieve an 'aha' moment.

Frustration can also be used to evoke powerful emotional and moral responses. For instance, in Call of Duty missions that required the player to harm innocents, some players experienced uncomfortable feelings and moral dilemmas, leading them to actively search for alternative actions, such as shooting the gun at the floor to avoid killing civilians. Frustration over being forced to commit an immoral act led to deeper engagement with their own morals.[81]

However, many digital games—especially those using the freemium model—aren’t primarily designed for fun but are "designed to create pain points that can be relieved with money."[82]This involves engineering negative, frustrating experiences to drive microtransactions, often falling under the umbrella of "manipulative design" or dark patterns.

  • Artificial Difficulty Spikes: Designers purposefully introduce "Artificial Difficulty Spikes" that suddenly make the game "nearly impossible to beat without power-ups". At this point, the game offers solutions via paid power-ups, capitalizing on the player's investment and frustration. This practice of aggressive advertising targeting players when they "cannot quite complete a level" is frequently cited by gamers.[83]
  • Monetization of basic quality of life: Frustration can be manufactured by intentionally limiting basic gameplay functions unless a purchase is made. Examples include:
    • "Energy Systems" that limit how much the player can play unless they "wait or pay."
    • Inventory Space Limits (e.g., in Fallout 76 and Elder Scrolls Online) that make it "difficult to enjoy the game" without buying more space. [84]
  • The "grind" and progress frustration: Some games require players to engage in "grinding," which refers to "repetitive and often tedious tasks" required to advance. Designers may intentionally frustrate players by making progress slow, thereby encouraging them to make an in-game purchase to "avoid the grind" and advance more quickly or easily.[85]
  • "Fun pain" and near-miss frustration: Designers use techniques to make the player feel like they "almost won," which triggers the near-miss response that keeps players—similar to gamblers—returning.[86] Another tactic is "fun pain," where players risk losing something important if they don’t make a purchase.[87]

This engineering of frustration is financially motivated, as the freemium model relies on a small percentage of "whales" (heavy users) willing to pay continuously to relieve the pain points designed into the game. Developers track when players are "getting overly frustrated and dying at a particular point" using data analytics to optimize when to prompt in-app purchases or extra lives.[88]

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